The Story So Far: Civil War Naval Events Leading Up to John William Denny’s Diary

By Nick Wieman
HRNM Educator

John William Denny at age 84 (Descendants of Henry Denny)

John William Denny (May 16, 1840 – September 15, 1930), a native of Newark, New Jersey, moved to Jacksonville, Florida for work when he was 17. In April 1862, he enlisted in the Union Navy (likely through nearby Fort Clinch, which had been abandoned by the Confederates the previous March) and was appointed as a Captain’s Clerk to Lieutenant Daniel Ammen, captain of USS Seneca. He followed Lieutenant Ammen to USS Sebago and USS Patapsco, transferred briefly to USS Wabash to serve under Commander Christopher Rodgers, then finished his naval career (as far as we know) as clerk to Major Anthony Ten Eyck at Hilton Head, South Carolina.

According to family history, after the war, he found work as a county treasurer in Columbia, South Carolina, before returning to Newark in 1872. After years of working as a bookkeeper for the family coal and wood business, he would be hired by the James A. Bannister Shoe Manufacturing Company in 1890, serving as the company’s Vice President and Treasurer, a position he would hold until his retirement in 1924. This blog will cover the events leading up to June 12, 1862, the day that Denny began keeping a diary, with successive blogs covering topics that Denny mentions in the diary proper.

Following the bombardment of Fort Sumter, marking the official beginning of the Civil War, General Winfield Scott proposed a total naval blockade of southern ports, cutting off the Confederacy from foreign trade and the South’s ability to sustain the war economically. It was dubbed the “Anaconda Plan” by critics for the imagery of the blockade encircling the South as the anaconda constricts its prey. The Blockade Strategy Board, led by Flag Officer Samuel Francis DuPont, was in charge of translating this lofty goal into action.

Anaconda Plan cartoon (Wikipedia)

Blockading almost 3,000 miles of coastline called for a fleet of small, light-drafted gunboats that were also fully seaworthy, and there was nothing currently in the Union Navy that was capable of fulfilling this task. Modifying a design he had made for the Imperial Russian Navy, Chief Engineer Benjamin F. Isherwood oversaw the construction of the Unadilla-class gunboat, also known as the “90-day gunboat” for how quickly the first four boats were completed from the contract being signed to the first ship, Unadilla, commissioned 93 days later. USS Seneca was one of 23 Unadilla-class gunboats, commissioned on October 14, 1861.

USS Seneca (Wikipedia)

Even if the Union Navy had enough ships to enforce the blockade, it could not feasibly maintain the blockade relying on northern ports for resupply, maintenance, and refueling. For that reason, one of the first offensives that the Union Navy took was the seizure of southern ports to act as reliable bases for the blockade squadrons. Port Royal Sound, part of the Sea Islands between Charleston and Savannah, was chosen for its geographic proximity to the two major Confederate cities and marshy waters hampering any Confederate counterattack. The Sound was protected by Confederate forces at Fort Walker on Hilton Head Island, Fort Beauregard across the Sound on Phillips Island, and a squadron of four small gunboats under Josiah Tatnall (future commander of CSS Virginia). General Thomas Drayton and Colonel Stephen Elliot Jr. commanded forces at Fort Walker and Fort Beauregard respectively.

On November 7, 1861, around 9:30 A.M., a fleet under Flag Officer Samuel DuPont (including USS Seneca) moved into action. The plan was for the fleet to steam right down the middle of the channel, staying in motion while firing on both forts. Turning in succession about midway through the channel, one column of ships led by DuPont aboard USS Wabash would double back along the shore of Hilton Head Island, laying further fire on the more heavily defended Fort Walker, while the other ships would provide cover against the Confederate gunboats.

Port Royal plan of attack (NHHC)

When it came time for the ships to execute the turn-in-succession, however, Sylvanus Godon of USS Mohican took the initiative to break away from the line and enfilade Fort Walker, confusing others in the line into breaking off from Wabash and taking position in the fort’s “blind spot.” While most of the ships continued to concentrate their fire on either fort, USS Seneca charged directly at the Confederate gunboat squadron, which had thus far been prevented from joining the battle by the ships providing cover. Seneca pursued Tattnall’s squadron for over two miles up Skull Creek before the Confederates managed to escape.

Bombardment and Capture of Forts Walker and Beauregard (Mariners' Museum)

General Drayton gave the order to evacuate around 2:00 P.M., the gunners at Fort Walker having depleted almost all of their gunpowder, and having had many of their guns disabled. To add insult to Drayton’s injury specifically, the late-arriving USS Pocahontas had joined the bombardment, a ship commanded by his own brother, Percival Drayton. Captain John Rodgers of Wabash led a landing party ashore under a flag of truce only to find the fort abandoned, and he raised the Stars and Stripes over the fort. The Confederates abandoned Fort Beauregard when Colonel Elliot heard Walker’s guns fall silent and cheers erupt from the Union fleet; John Ammen of USS Seneca had the honors of raising the flag.

Raising the flag over Port Royal (Wikipedia)

The capture of Port Royal allowed the Union to seize control of the rest of the Sea Islands, providing the Atlantic Blockading Squadron a forward operating base in the heart of the Confederacy for all blockade operations from Hampton Roads to Key West. The capture of these islands would also become the site of the “Port Royal Experiment,” a prelude to Reconstruction where former enslaved people received education and worked the land abandoned by their former enslavers.

While Denny enlisted after the Battle of Port Royal, his naval career was shaped by its consequences. Rather than naval warfare defined by opposing warships fighting each other head on, this naval campaign would be characterized by Union ships standing watch, on the lookout for Confederate cargo vessels whose greatest weapon was their speed and stealth. Future entries in this series will examine the life of John William Denny, Captain’s Clerk, as his diary provides a glimpse into not only blockade duty, but other aspects of the Civil War that intersected with his professional and personal life.

What’s down there? Part I: USS Jacob Jones

By Zach Smyers
HRNM Educator

In the 21st century, the technology used in underwater archaeology and deep sea diving has advanced significantly. Historic ships are being discovered in their final resting place regularly. This is the first in a series of blogs about recent underwater discoveries.

On August 11, 2022, a team of British divers from the vessel Darkstar discovered USS Jacob Jones (DD 61). The ship is 60 miles south of Newlyn (in the Cornwall region) and lies 400 feet below the ocean’s surface. The expedition’s divers were able to confirm that what they found was indeed the Jacob Jones when they discovered the ship’s bell. During the expedition, the divers also inspected one of the ship’s boilers along with the steam turbines.

Diver Dom Robinson investigates the wreck of Jacob Jones (dailymail.co.uk)

The Tucker-class destroyer Jacob Jones was built in Camden, New Jersey. Named after Commodore Jacob Jones, who served during the War of 1812, the ship was commissioned on February 10, 1916. Under the command of Lieutenant Commander David Bagley and with a crew of seven officers and 103 enlisted Sailors, Jacob Jones sailed for Ireland in April 1917 as the United States officially entered World War I.

USS Jacob Jones underway (Navsource)

When Jacob Jones arrived in theater in May 1917, its primary task was to escort Allied convoys and pick up survivors from British merchant ships that had been attacked by German U-boats. Jacob Jones picked up almost 400 survivors from three British ships: Orama, Valetta, and Dalfia. On December 6, 1917, Jacob Jones left Brest, France, bound for Queenstown, Ireland, which was being used by the U.S. Navy as a base during the war. While underway, the ship was hit by a German torpedo twenty miles off the coast of southern England. The torpedo ruptured the ship’s fuel tank, and the ship’s depth charges exploded as it was sinking. Commander Bagley ordered the crew to abandon ship. Jacob Jones sank in eight minutes, taking with it 64 Sailors.

Jacob Jones sinks after being torpedoed (NHHC)

Lieutenant (j.g.) Stanton F. Kalk was officer of the deck when Jacob Jones was hit. He worked tirelessly while in the frigid water to ensure that Sailors were on life rafts or lifeboats, and he eventually died from a combination of exhaustion and exposure to the cold. For his efforts that day, Kalk was awarded the Dinstinguished Service Medal posthumously. U-53, the German U-boat that sank Jacob Jones, radioed the Queenstown base, passing along the final position of the ship. In addition to sending the radio message, U-53 took on two wounded survivors from Jacob Jones: Seaman Second Class Albert De Mello and the ship’s cook, Petty Officer Second Class John Francis Murphy. The actions of Lt. (j.g.) Kalk, and the decision to call in the ship’s location by U-53's commanding officer, helped save the survivors.

Stanton F. Kalk as a midshipman in 1916 (NHHC)

Due to the Sunken Military Craft Act, which was enacted October 28, 2004, Jacob Jones is protected from potential looting and mistreatment. The ship is also still owned by the United States Navy. Therefore, the divers from the vessel Darkstar are working in cooperation with the U.S. Embassy in London and the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC). Fulfilling the request of NHHC, the ship’s bell was recovered in 2024 by a salvage unit that is part of the United Kingdom’s Ministry of Defense. Due to the ship’s status as a war grave, the salvage unit surveyed the site using remotely operated equipment, making sure not to disturb anything on the ship. Prior to leaving the wreck site, the salvage team placed a wreath with an American flag to honor the Sailors who were lost with Jacob Jones.

At this time, the ship’s bell is with Wessex Archaeology in England. There are plans for a formal ceremony to hand over the bell to NHHC later this year. Upon completion of the ceremony, NHHC’s Underwater Archaeology Branch will take custody of the bell for further conservation. The discovery of Jacob Jones helps bring closure regarding the story of the ship, and the recovery of the bell enables the public to pay tribute to the Sailors lost on that fateful day.

USS Jacob Jones's bell (USNI)

Navy Brings Back the Tiara

By Mark Freeman
HRNM Events Coordinator

Nine years ago, the United States Navy released NAVADMIN 208/15, which, among other uniform changes, discontinued tiaras as of October 1, 2016. Please visit our In Memoriam: The Navy Tiara blog for details. In 2018, the Navy discontinued the female combination cover commonly referred to as the “bucket” cover. On Valentine’s Day of this year, the Navy released NAVADMIN 031/24, which brought back some beloved uniform items and made a big change.

Detail on the Navy tiara of Captain Ruth Moeller, USN (Ret), part of the Hampton Roads Naval Museum collection. (HRNM)

Tiaras in the Navy have always been worn with formal ceremonial wear. Although it was not worn often, the tiara was a beloved piece of regalia that made those events a bit more special to those who chose to wear it. Because it was not a high profile uniform item, the Navy decided to do away with the tiara in 2016. That, however, did not deter Sailors from creating their own versions to wear for events. This time-honored headdress was finally recognized as a beloved uniform item and officially brought back just two months ago.

Homemade Tiara made for BMCS Nicole Serben by HMC Kelly Keilty

Chief tiara (mynavyexchange.com)

The second most popular change with NAVADMIN 031/24 is the return of the female combination cover known as the “bucket” cover. This item was removed from official wear in 2018. The bucket cover not only sets females apart, but is much more comfortable to fit required female hairstyles. Within days of the return of the bucket cover, female Sailors across the globe were trying to find this cover for events.

Bucket covers (Navytimes.com)

The biggest change from NAVADMIN 031/24 set the old school Sailors ablaze. The NAVADMIN states, “The restriction on placing hands in pockets while in uniform is rescinded. Sailors are authorized to have hands in their pockets when doing so does not compromise safety nor prohibit the proper rendering of honors and courtesies.” You read that right! Sailors can now warm their hands in their pockets while they walk, as long as it does not impede the rendering of honors.

Admiral "Bull" Halsey in World War II with his hand in his pocket (NHHC)

Uniform changes in the United States Navy happen yearly, if not multiple times a year, to change with the times. The return of the tiara and bucket cover have been well received throughout the fleet thus far. Allowing Sailors’ hands in their pockets is controversial among the more seasoned Sailors and junior enlisted. Most Sailors were doing this anyway without the rule being enforced, so that seems an easy rule to change. Now male Sailors want beards—maybe we’ll see that change in the next uniform NAVADMIN!

CNO ADM Franchetti with Sailors in San Diego (navy.mil)

Bill Withers: Singer, Songwriter, and Sailor

By Zach Smyers
HRNM Educator

Before he became a Grammy winning songwriter, singer, and producer, Bill Withers served his country in the U.S. Navy.

William Harrison Withers Jr., the youngest of six children, was born on July 4, 1938, in Slab Fork, West Virginia. His father was a coal miner and died when Withers was 13 years old.

In 1956, at age 17, Withers enlisted in the Navy. After boot camp, Withers went to Pensacola, Florida, for training as an aviation mechanic. During his time in the Navy, Withers overcame an issue with stuttering, and during liberty with his fellow Sailors he became increasingly interested in writing and performing songs. From 1962 to 1965, Withers served at NAS Agana in Guam. During this time, he had to decide whether to reenlist or to leave the Navy. Withers chose to be discharged.

With his honorable discharge in hand, Withers relocated to Los Angeles, California. He got a job working at a factory manufacturing aircraft parts, and he bought a guitar at a pawnshop and started to write songs. He worked during the day at the factory and performed at night.

Withers recorded his first album, Just as I Am, for Sussex Records in 1971. The album included the hit single “Ain’t No Sunshine.” Produced by Booker T. Jones, Just as I Am was a huge success, and Withers went on to win a Grammy for “Ain’t No Sunshine.” Withers was officially a star, and his sophomore album, Still Bill, released a year later, received rave reviews from music critics and fans. The songs “Lean on Me” and “Use Me” were hit singles from the album, with “Lean on Me” reaching number one on the Billboard pop chart. The album sold 500,000 copies and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America.

In 1973, Withers wrote one of his most powerful songs, “I Can’t Write Left-Handed,” which dealt with the Vietnam War. The song, written from the perspective of a wounded veteran, was Withers’ take on Vietnam veterans’ experiences at war and then as they returned to life in the United States. The song opens with Withers reflecting on the war and meeting the veteran who inspired the song. Withers says, “And I can remember not too long ago seeing a young guy with his right arm gone. Just got back. And I asked him how he was doing. He said he was doing all right now but he had thought he was gonna die. He said getting shot at didn’t bother him, it was getting shot that shook him up. And I tried to put myself in his position.”

Bill Withers at his Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction (Wikipedia)

Withers stepped away from the music business in 1985. Despite his departure, the awards and accolades continued to come his way. He was inducted into the Soul Train Hall of Fame in 1995, and the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999 for “Ain’t No Sunshine,” and again in 2007 for “Lean on Me.” In 2005, he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame, and in 2015 the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame.

Bill Withers passed away on March 30, 2020. In April 2020, he was selected to receive the Lone Sailor Award posthumously by the United States Navy Memorial. Speaking about Withers’ career, Rear Admiral Frank Thorp, President and CEO of the Navy Memorial, said, “Bill Withers has literally touched every American’s life over the last fifty years, and through his music and his example, has made our world a better place.”

Bill Withers accepts his honorary doctorate from West Virginia University (Billwithers.com)

Eternal Patrol: The Lost 52 Submarines of World War II

By Mark Freeman
HRNM Events Coordinator

WWII submarine veterans' memorial (oneternalpatrol.com)

World War II marked a period of unprecedented naval warfare where the silent service played a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the conflict. The U.S. Navy's submarine force, often referred to as the "Silent Service," operated beneath the waves, engaging in covert operations and inflicting significant damage on enemy forces. However, the success of these submarines came at a high cost, with 52 U.S. submarines, 374 naval officers, and 3,131 enlisted Sailors lost during the war, a 20% casualty rate. Today these submarines rest on eternal patrol with their accomplishments etched in history as a testament to the courage and sacrifice of those who served beneath the waves.

As war raged across the oceans, U.S. submarines became a vital component of the Allied strategy. Armed with torpedoes and equipped for covert operations, submarines carried out patrols in enemy waters, disrupted enemy supply lines, and conducted reconnaissance. The stealth and agility of submarines made them formidable adversaries, but they also exposed them to considerable risks.

USS Grayback (SS 208) was one of the most successful submarines of World War II. In two years, Grayback made an astounding nine successful war patrols, sinking 14 ships, totaling over 63,000 tons. On its 10th war patrol in 1944, after radioing that it had sunk two targets, Grayback was due back at Midway for resupply. Captured Japanese records show Grayback was spotted and attacked by a Japanese torpedo bomber while on the surface. The wreckage of Grayback was found in 2019 fifty nautical miles south of Okinawa.

USS Grayback (left); Grayback's aft conning tower (NHHC/defense.gov)

USS Wahoo (SS 238), under the command of the legendary Dudley "Mush" Morton, sank 19 Japanese ships during its seven patrols, totaling 55,000 tons. Its success in the Pacific theater made it one of the most celebrated submarines of the war. Wahoo, under command of Morton, was the first submarine to infiltrate an enemy harbor and sink a ship as well as sink an entire convoy unassisted. Tragically, Wahoo was sunk by Japanese patrol vessels in October 1943.

USS Wahoo and its wreckage (oneternalpatrol.com)

USS Tang (SS 306) is considered one of the most successful submarines of World War II. Under the command of Richard O'Kane, who was previously the executive officer aboard USS Wahoo, Tang sank 33 Japanese ships—equating to over 100 thousand tons—during its five war patrols, becoming the most successful U.S. submarine of the war. In addition to Tang’s superior undersea warfighting, the crew rescued twenty-two Navy aircrewmen off Truk Atoll, showing the versatility submarines had. Tang and all but nine of its crew were lost to a circular run of its own torpedo in the Formosa Strait in October 1944. LCDR O’Kane, one of the survivors, later received the Medal of Honor and wrote Clear the Bridge! The War Patrols of the U.S.S. Tang.

LCDR O'Kane and 22 rescued aircrewmen (NHHC)

USS Seawolf (SS 197) played a vital role in the early days of the war, contributing to the successful defense of the Philippines. Making an astounding fourteen successful war patrols during its career, it sank 27 enemy vessels and damaged an additional thirteen, sinking or damaging over 173 thousand tons. Seawolf was lost with all hands during its fifteenth patrol in October 1944, likely due to enemy mines in the Yellow Sea.

USS Seawolf's World War II battle flag (NHHC)

USS Perch (SS 176) served valiantly in the early days of the war, participating in daring raids and sinking a 5,000-ton enemy ship near the Philippines. On its last patrol in February 1942, Perch’s crew spent three days surfacing and diving, fighting off and evading Japanese destroyers. The submarine hit the bottom of the shallows, getting stuck and depth charged multiple times. Ultimately, Perch could sustain no more damage in the Java Sea. After being damaged by depth charges, the crew scuttled the submarine to prevent capture by the Japanese in March 1942. All crew members were taken as prisoners of war by the Japanese to the illegal questioning camp at Ofuna, Japan. They were then forced to work the Ashio mines, where six crewmembers died as POWs. All hands were assumed lost. It wasn’t until war’s end that their families—as well as the Navy—found out almost all had survived.

USS Perch and its wreckage (oneternalpatrol.com)

These are just a few examples of the incredible accomplishments of U.S. submarines during World War II. Each lost submarine tells a story of bravery, strategic ingenuity, and the harsh realities of naval warfare beneath the surface.

In total, US submarines accounted for 1,314 enemy warships sunk, 5.3 million tons, representing 55% of Axis power warships lost. The toll of war was not just measured in sunken ships but in the lives lost beneath the waves. The 52 lost U.S. submarines represented not only vessels but also the brave men who crewed them. Each submarine carried a crew of skilled and dedicated Sailors who faced the challenges of submarine warfare with courage and resilience.

The Lost 52 Project, a long-term exploration and underwater archeological project, has spent decades on its mission to find these lost World War II submarines. The team has found the wreckage of five submarines. Two additional wrecks have been found by other organizations, documenting their wreckage and providing closure to the families who lost loved ones.

The 52 United States submarines on eternal patrol lost during World War II left a permanent mark on the course of the conflict. Their accomplishments beneath the waves, from disrupting enemy supply lines, rescuing downed pilots, and pioneering new technologies showcased the versatility and courage of the submariners. As we reflect on their legacy we honor not just the vessels but the men who served on them—the silent guardians who played a pivotal role in securing victory during one of the most challenging periods in modern history. Today their memory lives on submerged on eternal patrol as a reminder of the sacrifices made for freedom and the enduring spirit of the Silent Service. To see the chronological list of submarines lost during World War II, please visit: https://submarinememorial.org/subslostwwii.html.

Pirates of the Mediterranean: Stephen Decatur and the First Barbary War (Part 2)

By Nick Wieman
HRNM Educator

To read part 1 of this blog, click here.

Stephen Decatur’s swift and efficient burning of USS Philadelphia, without a single casualty, made an impression on his superiors. Commodore Edward Preble, the commander of the American blockade of Tripoli and collaborator with Stephen Decatur in planning the destruction of the Philadelphia, successfully lobbied Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert to have Decatur promoted to captain at the age of 25. Decatur remains the youngest person promoted to captain in the U.S. Navy. Even with the burning of Philadelphia making him the talk of the Navy, Decatur’s “adventure” in the Mediterranean was far from over.

Seeking to take more aggressive action against Tripoli to shatter the confidence of the Bashaw, Commodore Preble procured six small gunboats and a pair of 13-inch sea mortar boats, crewed by around 35 men each. Tripoli’s formidable shore batteries and shallow, rocky harbor precluded a direct assault by the larger ships, but Preble believed that engaging these batteries at range would allow smaller ships to slip through and engage the enemy closer to shore. Supporting the main gunboat thrust with long-range cannon would be his flagship, the frigate USS Constitution; the brigs Argus, Siren, and Scourge; and the schooners Vixen, Nautilus, and Enterprise. The total armament would be 156 guns, manned by 1,060 men drawn from the crews of the respective ships along with Sicilian and Neapolitan volunteers.

Map of Tripoli Harbor on August 4, 1804 (Dawn Like Thunder)

The journey from Messina, Sicily, to Tripoli would be slow. Being little more than barges, the gunboats had to be towed behind the seaworthy vessels and were at risk of foundering in high winds. The squadron arrived a few miles off Tripoli in late July, but had to go further out to sea to avoid high winds near the shoreline. On August 3, Preble’s squadron arrived outside Tripoli Harbor and assumed its formation. The six gunboats were divided into two divisions, commanded by Lieutenants Stephen Decatur and Richard Somers.

This oil painting depicts the bombardment of Tripoli (NHHC)

At precisely 2:00, the pair of mortar boats began bombarding Tripoli alongside the rest of the American seagoing fleet, drawing fire from the city’s coastal artillery batteries to cover the advance of the two gunboat divisions toward the awaiting Tripolitan gunboat squadrons. The pirate’s ships were larger and heavier armed, each boasting an 18- to 26-pound cannon and a pair of howitzers, and a crew complement of around 30 to 50 men. Stephen Decatur’s gunboat squadron was the first to close the distance with a Tripolitan gunboat squadron that had taken heavy fire, and Decatur himself led the first boarding party onto the damaged lead ship to engage the pirates in close quarters combat. The first ship was taken in a matter of minutes; the Tripolitan crew was reeling from the loss of their captain in the initial barrage and was no match for the American boarding party. The Tripolitans in the gunboat suffered 16 killed and 15 wounded, with five taken prisoner; the Americans had three wounded.

Map of Tripoli Harbor showing ship positions (NHHC)

Claiming the ship as his prize, Decatur hauled down the Tripolitan colors and prepared to sail the ship out of the harbor, but before he could, he received terrible news. While Stephen and his crew were busy engaging the ship, his brother James had secured the surrender of a Tripolitan gunboat and boarded the ship to receive the crew’s arms. The commander of the ship instead pulled out a pistol and fired a round into James’s head, mortally wounding him. Stephen’s pursuit of his brother’s killer would be the stuff of Navy legend.

Decatur turned his captured ship around and sailed back into the harbor, intercepting the errant gunboat. Decatur and eight other men boarded the ship and laid into the pirate crowd. Decatur quickly singled out the treacherous captain because of his dress and formidable size. Decatur thrust his cutlass at the captain, but it was parried by his large boarding pike, snapping off at the hilt in the process. With Decatur disarmed, the captain thrust his pike toward Decatur’s heart, but he blocked the blow with his arm. Pulling the pike to knock the captain off balance, Decatur lunged at his throat, and both men wrestled on the deck of the ship.

"Stephen Decatur's Conflict with the Algerine at Tripoli," oil over print on canvas, by an unidentified artist (NHHC)

Even as the battle raged around them, both the Tripolitan and American crews looked to intercede on their commanders’ behalf. At one point in the fight, another pirate swung his sword directly at Decatur’s neck. A passing American Sailor named Daniel Frazier (erroneously identified as Reuben James) threw himself between the pirate and Decatur, who received a passing blow on his scalp. Decatur’s would-be assassin was shot dead before he could attempt another blow.

Daniel Frazier intervening to save his captain's life (NHHC)

In the momentary confusion, the captain rolled around and pinned Decatur to the deck, drew a dagger with his free hand, and plunged it toward Decatur’s throat. Decatur grabbed the man’s wrist in one hand while he reached into his pocket, cocked his pistol, and fired at the captain, finally killing him. With the treacherous captain slain, the Americans seized control of the vessel. After capturing the ship, Decatur transferred to Preble’s personal boat to bring his brother back to the Constitution for aid, but he passed away before they arrived.

After the Battle of the Gunboats, the blockading squadron commenced a month of heavy bombardment of Tripoli. After each bombardment, the Bashaw’s ransom and tribute demands dropped incrementally, but not enough to satisfy Preble, who anxiously awaited the promised reinforcement by Commodore James Barron for another major assault on the city. When September began and there was no sign of a squadron to relieve his own depleted forces, Preble devised one last assault.

USS Intrepid, formerly the Tripolitan ship Mastico, was refitted as a fire ship—in effect, a giant floating bomb. The ship was loaded with 15,000 pounds of gunpowder and 250 shells, with fuses set to burn long enough for the crew to evacuate safely, a poetic echo of Intrepid’s former role as the deliverer of fire to the captured USS Philadelphia. Commanding the ship and its twelve-man crew was Richard Somers, a dear friend of Stephen Decatur. Late on the night of September 4, they set off into the harbor intent on sending the ship right into the heart of the Tripolitan fleet before unleashing its explosive payload.

Destruction of the fire ship Intrepid (Wikipedia)

The promised fiery deliverance on the Tripolitan pirates never came. Roughly 45 minutes after setting off, Intrepid exploded prematurely before getting within range of any targets and before the crew could evacuate. Why the ship exploded remains a mystery, although it was likely an accident. A popular contemporary theory was that Somers and the crew sacrificed themselves rather than be boarded by an intercepting Tripolitan gunboat, but only American bodies were recovered afterwards, rather than the mixture of nationalities as would be expected in that situation.

While the First Barbary War would end months later after the capture of Derne by the United States Marines, for Stephen Decatur the war was over after the loss of his brother James and close friend Somers. He returned home to a hero’s welcome, not only for becoming the youngest captain in U.S. Navy history, but for thoroughly demonstrating his gallantry and ingenuity in his part combating the dreaded pirates of the Mediterranean.